Though the world has changed considerably in its outward material aspect, means of communication, scientific inventions, etc., there has not been any great change in its inner spiritual side. The old forces of hunger and love, and the simple joys and fears of the heart, belong to the permanent stuff of human nature. The true interests of humanity, the deep passions of religion, and the great problems of philosophy, have not been superseded as material things have been. Indian thought is a chapter of the history of the human mind, full of vital meaning for us. The ideas of great thinkers are never obsolete. They animate the progress that seems to kill them. The most ancient fancies sometimes startle us by their strikingly modern character, for insight does not depend on modernity.
Ignorance
of the subject of Indian thought is profound. To the modern mind Indian
philosophy means two or three "silly" notions about mAyA,
or the delusiveness of the world, karma, or belief in fate, and tyAga,
or the ascetic desire to be rid of the flesh. Even these simple notions, it is
said, are wrapped up in barbarous nomenclature and chaotic clouds of vapour and
verbiage, looked upon by the "natives" as wonders of intellect. After
a six-months' tour from Calcutta to Cape Comorin, our modern aesthete dismisses
the whole of Indian culture and philosophy as "pantheism,"
"worthless scholasticism," "a mere play upon words,"
"at all events nothing similar to Plato or Aristotle, or even Plotinus or
Bacon." The intelligent reader interested in philosophy will, however,
find in Indian thought an extraordinary mass of material which for detail and
variety has hardly any equal in any other part of the world. There is hardly
any height of spiritual insight or rational philosophy attained in the world
that has not its parallel in the vast stretch that lies between the early Vedic seers
and the modern naiyAyikas. Ancient India, to adapt Professor
Gilbert Murray's words in another context, "has the triumphant, if tragic,
distinction of beginning at the very bottom and struggling, however
precariously, to the very summits." [ Four Stages of Greek
Religion, p. 15. ] The naive utterances of the Vedic poets,
the wondrous suggestiveness of the upaniShads, the marvellous psychological
analyses of the Buddhists, and the stupendous system of shankara,
are quite as interesting and instructive from the cultural point of view as the
systems of Plato and Aristotle, or Kant and Hegel, if only we study them in a
true scientific frame of mind, without disrespect for the past or contempt for
the alien. The special nomenclature of Indian philosophy which cannot be easily
rendered into English accounts for the apparent strangeness of the intellectual
landscape. If the outer difficulties are overcome, we feel the kindred throb of
the human heart, which because human is neither Indian nor European. Even if
Indian thought be not valuable from the cultural point of view, it is yet
entitled to consideration, if on no other ground, at least by reason of its
contrast to other thought systems and its great influence over the mental life
of Asia.
In the
absence of accurate chronology, it is a misnomer to call anything a history.
Nowhere is the difficulty of getting reliable historical evidence so extreme as
in the case of Indian thought. The problem of determining the exact dates of
early Indian systems is as fascinating as it is insoluable, and it has
furnished a field for the wildest hypotheses, wonderful reconstruction and bold
romance. The fragmentary condition of the material from out of which history
has to be reconstructed is another obstacle. In these circumstances I must
hesitate to call this work a History of Indian Philosophy.
In
interpreting the doctrines of particular systems, I have tried to keep in close
touch with the documents, give wherever possible a preliminary survey of the
conditions that brought them into being, and estimate their indebtedness to the
past as well as their contribution to the progress of thought. I have emphasised
the essentials so as to prevent the meaning of the whole from being obscured by
details, and attempted to avoid starting from any theory. Yet I fear I shall be
misunderstood. The task of the historian is hard, especially in philosophy.
However much he may try to assume the attitude of a mere chronicler and let the
history in some fashion unfold its own inner meaning and continuity, furnish
its own criticism of errors and partial insights, still the judgements and
sympathies of the writer cannot long be hidden. Besides, Indian philosophy
offers another difficulty. We have the commentaries which, being older, come
nearer in time to the work commented upon. The presumption is that they will be
more enlightening about the meaning of the texts. But when the commentators
differ about their interpretations, one cannot stand silently by without
offering some judgement on the conflict of views. Such personal expressions of
opinion, however dangerous, can hardly be avoided. Effective exposition means
criticism and evaluation, and I do not think it is necessary to abstain from
criticism in order that I may give a fair and impartial statement. I can only
hope that the subject is treated in a calm and dispassionate way, and that
whatever the defects of the book, no attempt is made to wrest the facts to suit
a preconceived opinion. My aim has been not so much to narrate Indian views as
to explain them, so as to bring them within the focus of Western traditions of
thought. The analogies and parallels suggested between the two thought systems
are not to be pressed too far, in view of the obvious fact that the
philosophical speculations in India were formulated centuries ago, and had not
behind them the brilliant achievements of modern science.
Particular
parts of Indian philosophy have been studied with great care and thoroughness
by many brilliant scholars in India, Europe and America. Some sections of
philosophical literature have also been critically examined, but there has been
no attempt to deal with the history of Indian thought as an undivided whole or
a continuous development, in the light of which alone different thinkers and
views can be fully understood. To set forth the growth of Indian philosophy
from the dim dawn of history in its true perspective is an undertaking of the
most formidable kind, and it certainly exceeds the single grasp of even the
most industrious and learned scholar. Such a standard encylopaedia of Indian
philosophy requires not only special aptitude and absolute devotion, but also
wide culture and intelligent co-operation. This book professes to be no more
than a general survey of Indian thought, a short outline of a vast subject.
Even this is not quite easy. The necessary condensation imposes on the author a
burden of responsibility, which is made more onerous by the fact that no one
man can attempt to be an authority on all these varied fields of study, and
that the writer is compelled to come to decisions on evidence which he himself
cannot carefully weigh. In matters of chronology, I have depended almost
entirely on the results of research carried on by competent scholars. I am
conscious that in surveying this wide field, much of interest is left
untouched, and still more only very roughly sketched in. This work has no
pretensions to completeness in any sense of the term. It attempts to give such
a general statement of the main results as shall serve to introduce the subject
to those to whom it may not be known, and awaken if possible in some measure
that interest for it to which it is so justly entitled. Even if it proves a
failure, it may assist or at least encourage other attempts.
My
original plan was to publish the two volumes together. Kind friends like
Professor J. S. Mackenzie suggested to me the desirability of bringing out the
first volume immediately. Since the preparation of the second volume would take
some time and the first is complete in itself, I venture to publish it
independently. A characteristic feature of many of the views discussed in this
volume is that they are motivated, not so much by the logical impulse to
account for the riddles of existence, as by the practical need for a support in
life. It has been difficult to avoid discussions of, what may appear to the
reader, religious rather than philosophical issues, on account of the very
close connexion between religion and philosophy in early Indian speculation.
The second volume, however, will be of a more purely philosophical character,
since a predominantly theoretical interest gets the upper hand in the darsanas or
systems of philosophy, though the intimate connexion between knowledge and life
is not lost sight of.
It is a
pleasure to acknowledge my obligations to the many eminent orientalists whose
works have been of great help to me in my studies. It is not possible to mention
all their names, which will be found in the course of the book. Mention must,
however, be made of Max Muller, Deussen, Keith, Jacobi, Garbe, Tilak,
Bhandarkar, Rhys Davids and Mrs. Rhys Davids, Oldenberg, Poussin, Suzuki and
Sogen.
Several
valuable works of recent publication, such as Professor Das Gupta's History
of Indian Philosophy and Sir Charles Eliot's Hinduism and
Buddhism, came to hand too late for use, after the MS. had been completed
and sent to the publishers in December 1921. The bibliography given at the end
of each chapter is by no means exhaustive. It is intended mainly for the
guidance of the English reader.
My thanks
are due to Professor J. S. Mackenzie and Mr. V. Subrahmanya Aiyar, who were
good enough to read considerable parts of the MS. and the proofs. The book has
profited much by their friendly and suggestive counsel. I am much indebted to
Professor A. Berriedale Keith for reading the proofs and making many valuable
comments. My greatest obligation, however, is to the Editor of the Library of
Philosophy, Professor J. H. Muirhead, for his invaluable and most generous help
in the preparation of the book for the press and previously. He undertook the
laborious task of reading the book in the MS., and his suggestions and
criticisms have been of the greatest assistance to me. I am also obliged to Sir
Asutosh Mookerjee, Kt., C.S.I., for his constant encouragement and the
facilities provided for higher work in the Post-Graduate Department of the
Calcutta University.
November 1922.
Introduction
The Natural Situation in India
General Characteristics of Indian Thought
Some Charges against Indian Philosophy
Value of the Study of Indian Philosophy
Periods of Indian Thought
The Vedic Period
Transition to the upaniShads
The Philosophy of the upaniShadsThe Epic Period
Materialism
The Pluralistic Realism of the Jainas
The Ethical Idealism of early Buddhism
Epic Philosophy
The Theism of the BhagavadgItA
Buddhism as a Religion
The Schools of BuddhismAppendix
Further consideration of some problems